1. John Henry Mackay, Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1898), pp. 34-35. There are many accounts of Stirner's life, but they all rely heavily on Mackay's work. Mackay on pp. V-X, 8-23 describes the ten years of research which went into the book. On Mackay's method of research see also: "Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk. von John Henry Mackay. Die Geschichte meiner Arbeit (1888-1897)," Wochenblatt der Frankfurter Zeitung, No. 10 (March 5, 1898), 152-154. Mackay interviewed a number of people who had known Stirner and was instrumental in leading a drive to collect funds to place a marker on Stirner's grave in Berlin in the Sophienkirchhof and a bronze plaque on the house in Berlin in which Stirner died at 19 Phillipstrasse. In 1906 Mackay led another drive to raise funds to place a memorial plaque on the house in Bayreuth in which Stirner was born. A copy of the mimeographed Bericht über die Anbringung einer Gedenktafel an dem Geburtshaus Max Stirners in Bayreuth, which Mackay sent to George Schumm is preserved in the Labadie Collection of the University of Michigan Library at Ann Arbor along with some of Mackay's correspondence relative to the project. The Bericht contains a complete list of the names, addresses, and amounts given by all who contributed as well as many other details about the cost and installation of the plaque. Mackay's book received mixed reviews. A favorable review is Rudolf Steiner, "Max Stirner," Das Magazin für Literatur (Berlin und Weimar), No. 26, 67 (July 2, 1898), 601-605. Two unfavorable reviews are: M. Kronenberg, "Der Philosoph des Anarchismus," Die Nation, Wochenschrift für Politik, Volkswirtschaft und Literatur (Berlin), 16 (1898-1899), 48-51; and Karl Jöel, "Stirner," Neue deutsche Rundschau (Berlin), IX (1898), 995-1015; Otto Stoessl, "Die Lebensbeschreibung des 'Einzigen.'" Die Gegenwart, No. 26 (1899), 406-409 is a mixed review. Another favorable review is Bernhard Zack, "Max Stirner. Sein Leben und sein Werk," Literarische Beilage des Sozialist. (Berlin), IV (April 9, 1898). Jöel's main criticisms of the book are: It is padded with blank pages and title pages, which it is; Mackay included too much material in the "Life and Times" style of Lytton Strachey regarding the milieu in which Stirner lived. Jöel believed this was not germane to the subject. He also criticizes Mackay for not being dispassionate enough with his subject. Mackay in the foreword to his book related that he was writing from the position of one who was enamored of his subject. Mackay's biography of Stirner can best be described as a labor of love. He researched every possible avenue to uncover any facts about Stirner. He included everything he found about him brining out both his good and bad points. Several reviewers criticized his biography of Stirner for being too sketchy; this is due to the lack of information he could discover about certain periods of Stirner's life. Stirner was like an iceberg, most of him lay beneath the surface. When he died he left few foottracks in the sand of time for the researcher to follow. Mackay spent ten years tracking down every iota of information he could on Stirner. He is to be commended for his determination and effort. Had he not undertaken his study of Stirner when he did much more information on the elusive character of Stirner would have been lost forever.

  2. Mackay, Max Stirner pp. 34-39.

  3. Ibid., pp. 45-62

  4. On Die Freien see: Ibid., pp. 67-93; and Gustav Mayer, "Die Anfange des politischen Radikalismus im vormarzlichen Preussen," Zeitschrift für Politik. VI (1913), 45-72. On pp. 111-113 is a copy of the program of Die Freien.

  5. Engels liked to illustrate his letters. See: Zwischen 18 und 25 Jugend Briefe von Friedrich Engels in which many of his sketches are reproduced.

  6. Woodcock, Anarchismus pp. 97-98.

  7. Quoted in Henri Arvon, Aux sources de 1'existentialisme Max Stirner (Paris, 1954), p. 14.

  8. Briefwechsel zwischen Friedrich Engels und Karl Marx. I (Stuttgart, 1921), p. 326; II p. 126. Marx followed Stirner's life and that of his wife quite closely. He liked to poke fun at Stirner's wife referring to her as Stirner's Geliebchen. This was a pun directed at Stirner's dedication of his book which read "to my sweetheart Marie, Dähnhardt." This dedication would tend to indicate that Stirner had begun writing his book before his marriage. Marx was not only interested in Stirner but also in Stirner's wife's activities after she left him. It is possible that Marx knew her from his days in Berlin when he frequented the meetings of Die Freien. Did Marx and Stirner ever meet? Franz Mehring in Karl Marx, p. 19, relates that there is no evidence of such a meeting. Henri Arvon, following Mackay's lead in Aux sources de l'existentialisme Max Stirner p. 13, says probably not because Arvon relates that Marx left Berlin in April, 1841, and that Stirner probably did not become associated with Die Freien until the end of the year. However, in a letter of November 19, 1844, to Marx Engels writes as though Marx and Stirner may have met. Zwischen 18 und 25. p. 237. At least Stirner's (Schmidt's) name was known to Marx. Marx may have met Marie Dähnhardt though because she was associated with Die Freien., If they did meet, and what their relationship was I do not know but it does seem that Marx had an inordinate interest in her activities. It should be noted that Mackay thinks that Marie probably came to Berlin in 1843, but he is not certain of this. Her unsavory reputation could be one reason why Marx was interested in her activities. She was very attractive and Marx was human before he became a Soviet God.

  9. Only Mackay and Arvon treat Stirner's early writings in any detail. Atindranath Bose, A History of Anarchism (Calcutta, 1967) says that Stirner's book "burst like a bombshell," p. 149.

  10. See: Max Stirners kleinere Schriften und seine Entgegungen auf die Kritik seines Werkes "Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum" aus den Jahren 1842-1848, ed. by John Henry Mackay, 2nd edition revised (Treptow bei Berlin, 1914). This edition contains, in addition to both a number of articles written before and after he wrote his book, the material lie wrote while he was the Berlin correspondent for the Rheinische Zeitung and Leipziger Zeitung in 1842. On Stirner's life as a correspondent see: Gustav Mayer, "Stirner als Publizist," Frankfurter Zeitung (October 4, 1912).

  11. For a good examination of Stirner's early writings see: Arvon, Aux sources de 1'existentialisme Max Stirner, pp. 19- 41. This entire book is marred by the translation of German titles into French, titles which never appeared in French. Arvon even translates newspaper titles into French. See also: Mackay, Max Stirner, pp. 107-122.

  12. In this study all references to The Ego and His Own will be to the edition edited by James J. Martin and published by the Libertarian Book Club in New York in 1963. The translation in this edition was done by Steven T. Byington for the first English edition published by Benjamin R. Tucker in 1907.

  13. For example see: Bernard R. Miles, "Vomit-Makers to Meet in Paris," Freedom Anarchist Weekly (London), No. 14, XXIX (May 11, 1968), p. 1. Stirner's writings and Mackay's books have been reprinted in Germany during the last few years.

  14. There is a vast literature on Stirner. Much of it is concerned with his book. Some of this literature is worthless, but much is worth looking at. In addition to the discussion by Henri Arvon and John Mackay already referred to see: Paul Eltzbacher, Anarchism (New York, 1960), pp. 60-76; George Woodcock, Anarchism (New York, 1962), pp. 94-105; Carl Emge, Max Stirner, Eine geistig nicht bewaltigte Tendenz (Wiesbaden, 1964); Herbert Read, The Tenth Muse; Essays in Criticism (New York, 1958), pp. 4-82; Victor Roudine, "Max Stirner," Portraits d'hier (October 15, 1910), 65-96; Heinrich Romundt, "Max Stirner und die nachkantische Philosophie," Preussische Jahrbücher 133 (1908), 33-47; Anselm Ruest, Max Stirner: Leben-Weltanschauung-Vermachtnis (Berlin, 1906); Henri Lichtenberger, L'anarchisme en Allemagne. Max Stirner," La nouvelle Revue, 89 (July-August, 1894), 233-241; Gustav Kahn, "Stirner et l'individualisme," La nouvelle Revue, 104 (September-October, 1904), 131-136; A. Martin, Max Stirners Lehre (Leipzig, 1906); Ernst Schultze, "Stirnersche Ideen in einem paranoischen Wohnsystem," Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 36 (January, 1903), 793-818; Ernst Seilliere, "La morale imperialists chez Stirner," Mercure de France, 60 (March 15, 1906), 179-198; Sigmund Kaff, "Der Philosoph des Egoismus," Sozialistische Monatshefte (1907), 141-148; George Plechanoff, Anarchism and Socialism (London, 1895), pp. 16-26; James Huneker, Egoists (New York, 1932), 350-372; E. Horn, Max Stirners ethischer Egoismus (Berlin, 1907); Ola Hannsson, Seher und Deuten (Berlin, 1894), pp. 92-136; E. Horn, "Max Stirner un der Anarchismus," Die Zukunft, II (1892), 252-256; Sidney Hook, From Hegel to Marx (New York, 1950), pp. 165-185; Karl Löwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche (New York, 1964); Max Nettlau, Der Vorfrühling der Anarchie (Berlin, 1926), pp. 169179; Francois Lugghesi, La philosophie de Stirner (Paris, 1932); Hektor Zoccoli, Die Anarchie: ihre Verkünder, ihre Ideen, ihre Taten (Leipzig, 1909), pp. 17ff; Max Adler, Wegweiser: Studien zur Geistesgeschichte des Sozialismus (Stuttgart, 1914), pp. 173-199; Jack Friedland, Max Stirner: Versuch einer Würdigung seiner Bedeutung (Hamburg, 1921); Herman Schultheiss, Stirner; Grundlagen zum Verstandnis des Werkes "Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum," 2nd edition (Leipzig, 1922); Victor Pasch, L'individualisme anarchists Max Stirner (Paris, 1904); Max Messer, Max Stirner (Berlin, 1907); Alain Sergent and Claude Harmel, Histoire de l'anarchie (Paris, 1949), pp. 149-160; Martin Buber, Between Men and Man (London, 1947); E. V. Zenker, Anarchism (New York, 1897), pp. 100-138; Camille Spiess, Max Stirner (Nice, 1949); Eduard Bernstein, "Die soziale Doktrin des Anarchismus. Stirner. Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum," Neue Zeit (Stuttgart), 10 (1891-92), 1, pp. 358-65, 421-28, 11, 58 9-96, 618-26, 657-66, 772-78, 813-19; Anselm Ruest, Stirnerbrevier. Die stärke des einsamen, Max Stirners individualismus und egoismus (Berlin, 1906); Georg Struguresqu, Max Stirner, Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum.(Munich, 1911); N. Staurzh, Max Stirners Philosophie des Ich (Berlin, 1923); K. A. Hautz, Die Philosophie M. Stirners im Gegensatz zum Hegelschen Idealismus (1936); W. Cuybers, Max Stirner als Philosoph (Wurzburg, 1937); D. Koigen, Zur Vorgeschiclite des modernen philosophischen Sozialismus in Deutschland. Zur Geschichte der Philosophie und Socialphilosophie des Junghegelianismus (Bern, 1901), pp. 119-146; J. L. Kreibig, Geschichte und Kritik des ethischen Skeptizismus (1896), pp. 100-122; H. Kronenberg, Moderne Pliilosophen, Portraits und Charakteristiken (Munich, 1899), pp. 191-215; Karl Jöel, Philosophenwege-Ausblicke und Rückblicke (Berlin, 1901), pp. 228-261; an extensive bibliography of writings by or about Stirner is found in Hans G. Helms, Die Ideologie der anonymen Gesellschaft (Köln, 1966), pp. 510-600.

  15. The main contemporary criticisms of Stirner's book are: Ludwig Feuerbach, Öber das 'wesen des Christenthum' in Beziehung auf den., 'Einzigen und sein Eigenthum,' " Wigands Vierteljahrsschrift, Band 2 (1845), 193-205, reprinted in Gustave Lange (ed.), Ludwig Feuerbach, Kleine Phil Schriften 1842-1845 (Leipzig, 1950), pp. 170-196; Moses Hess, Die letzten Philosophen (Darmstadt, 1845), reprinted in August Carnu and Wolfgang Mönke (eds.), Moses Hess, Philosophische und sozialistische Schriften 1837-1850 (Berlin-East, 1961), pp. 381-392; Sozeliga Bruno Bauer, "Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum," Norddeutschen Blätter für Kritik, Literatur und Unterhaltung (March, 1845), 1-34; Kuno Fischer, "Moderne Sophisten," Epigonen (1848), 277-316; Kuno Fischer, "Ein Apologet der Sophistik und ein 'philosophischer Reactionär,'" Epigonen (1847), 152-165; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Werke (Berlin-East, 1962), III "Saint Max," pp. 101-438. (Not printed at the time even though it was written then); W. Friedensburg, "Zur Geschichte des neuesten Philosophie. Max Stirner: Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum," Grenzboten I, (1845), 239-241; "Die deutsche Philosophie seit Hegels Tode," Die Gegenwart (1851), 292-340; Bettina von Armin, "Die Auflösung des Einzigen durch den Menschen," Epigonen (1847), 189-251; "Feuerbach und der Einzige. Die Consequenzen Feuerbachs und ihr Kampf gegen die Kritik und den Einzigen," Wigands Vierteljahrsschrift (1846), 123-138; "Das Verstandesthum und das Individuum," Evangelische Kirchenzeitung (1846), 48; "Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum, von Max Stirner," Blätter für literarische Unterhaltung, No's 36 and 37 (February, 1846); Stirner replies to his critics in: "Die philosophischen Reactionäre," Die Epigonen.(1847), 141-151. Reprinted in Mackay, Max Stirners kleinere Schriften, pp. 401-415; "Recensenten Stirners," Wigands Vierteljahrsschrift (1845), 147-194. Reprinted in Mackay, Max Stirner's kleinere Schriften pp. 346-396.

  16. Zwischen 18 and 25, pp. 237-238.

  17. Moses Hess Briefwechsel, pp. 105-107.

  18. Arnold Ruge Briefwechsel und Tagebuch-Blätter aus den Jahren 1825-1880. ed. by Paul Nerrlich (Berlin, 1886), I, p. 38 2.

  19. Ibid., p. 386.

  20. See note 14 Sozeliga was a pseudonym for Franz Sozeliga Zychlin von Sychlinsky. (1816-1900) who at the time worked for the Norddeutsche Blätter in which the article appeared.

  21. There are quite a number of interesting studies on Feuerbach and Stirner. See: Friedrich Jodl, "Max Stirner und Ludwig Feuerbach," Österreichische Rundschau, XXVI (January-March, 1911), 420-428; Albrecht Rau, "Ludwig Feuerbach und Max Stirner," Das Magazin für die Literatur des In- und Auslandes (Berlin), No. 41 (1888), 643-646; Friedrich Jodl, Max Stirner und Ludwig Feuerbach (Stuttgart, 1916); Julius Duboc, Das Ich und die Übrigen, Für und wider Stirner (Leipzig, 1897); A. Levy, La philosophie de Feuerbach (Paris, 1904), pp. 338-379; Wilhelm Bolin, Ludwig Feuerbach, sein Werken und seine Zeitgenossen (Stuttgart, 1891), pp. 98-112; Werner Schuffenhauer, Feuerbach und der junge Marx, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der marxistischen Weltanschauung (Berlin, 1965), pp. 10, 129-130, 141-145, 148, 165, 184-185, 221, 225; Simon Rawidowicz, Ludwig Feuerbach, Ursprung und Schichsal (Berlin, 1931); Eugene Kamenka, The Philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach (New York, 1970).

  22. For two interesting analyses see Sidney Hook, From Hegel to Marx: Studies in the Intellectual Development of Karl Marx (New York, 1950), pp. 164-185; and Arvon, Aux sources de l'existentialisme Max Stirner pp. 146-178.

  23. Hook, From Hegel to Marx, pp. 179-180.

  24. Quoted in Hook, Ibid., p. 180. For an excellent article on Marx's materialist philosophy of history as it was developed in Deutsche Ideologie in response to Stirner's book see: Inge Taubert, "Zur materialistischen Geschichtsauffassung von Marx und Engels. Über einige theoretische Probleme im ersten Kapitel der 'Deutschen Ideologie, '" Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung Sonderheft X (1968), 27 -50. See also: Renate Merkel, "Zur Entwicklung der wissenschaftlich begründeten Auffassung Uber die kommunistische Gesellschaft durch Marx und Engels in ihrer Schrift 'Die deutsche Ideologie' (Herbst 1845 bis Sommer 1846)," Beiträge zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung, Heft 5 (1970), 734-751.

  25. Quoted in Hook, Ibid., p. 182.

  26. E. V. Zenker, Anarchism (New York, 1897), pp. 130-131; Franz Mehring, Geschichte der Sozialdemokratie, I, pp. 250-251.

  27. E. V. Zenker, Anarchism pp. 131-32.

  28. Max Nettlau, Der Vorfrühling der Anarchie, p. 169.

  29. Some of the literature attempting to solve this question is: Félicien Pascal, "Du roman tisme a I'anarchie," Le Correspondant, 225 (November, 1906), 752-780; Gustave Kahn, "Stirner et l'individualisme," La nouvelle Revue, 104 (1904), 131-136; Robert Schellwien, Max Stirner und Friedrich Nietzsche (Paris, 1904); P. Lachmann, Protogoras, Nietzsche, Stirner (Berlin, 1914); S. Jankélévitsch, "L'unique et le surhomme. Le problème de la personnalité chez Stirner et chez Nietzsche," Revue d' Allemagne (January-June, 1931), 27-40, 216-243; Anselm Ruest, Max Stirner (Berlin, 1907), pp. 28ff; Camile Spiess, Max Stirner (Nice, 1948); Charles Andler, Nietzsche sa vie et sa pensée (Paris, 1958), II, 362-365, III, 377-379; Paul Carus, Nietzsche and Other Exponents of Individualism (Chicago, 1914), pp. 74-101; Arthur Drews, Nietzsches Philosophie (Heidelberg, 1904), pp. 404-405; Wolfgang Wendier, Carl Sternheim. Weltvorstellung und Kunstprinzipien (Frankfurt a. M., 1966); Anselm Ruest, "Stirner und Nietzsche. Ein Vorwort," Die Aktion, Zeitschrift für freiheitliche Politik und Literatur, I (September, 1911), 916-917.

  30. Clarence Crane Brinton, Nietzsche (New York, 1965), p 227. This book is a reprint of the 1941 edition. Brinton writes: "Nietzsche has even, by unenlightened critics, been coupled with Max Stirner, author of The Ego and Its Own," Brinton evidently did not spend much time studying Stirner or he would know that the title of his book is The Ego and His Own.

  31. Karl Löwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche, p. 187.

  32. Ibid., pp. 187-188. The question of Nietzsche's relationship to anarchism is one that could be undertaken with some profit. Much time and paper has been devoured by the question of Nietzsche's relationship to Nazism, as well as that of Richard Wagner. Early in life Nietzsche was a great admirer of Wagner although this admiration did not last. The question of Nietzsche's relationship with Wagner, his opinion on socialism, and his apparent affinity for anarchy are problems that would be well worth tracing out in detail. A few meager attempts at this are: "The Ideals of Anarchy," Littell's Living Age, 211 (1896), 616-636; "Neue Aphorismen," Die Zukunft, 32 (1900), 12-13; Bruno Wille, "Vom rothen Gotzen," Die Zukunft, 7 (1894), 452-458; Félicien Pascal, "Du romantisme à l'anarchie," Le Correspondant, 225 (1906), 752-780; Édouard Schuré, "L'individualisme et l'anarchie," Revue des deux mondes, 132 (August 15, 1895), 775-805; Max Nordau, Degeneration (London,. 1913).

  33. Mussolini, Phoenix edition (Chicago, 1966), pp. 167-174. A book which attempts to relate Stirner to the intellectual origins of German fascism is Hans G. Helms, Die Ideologie der anonymen Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1966). In general anarchists have been highly critical of the thesis of this book. For example see: James J. Martin's introduction to the English translation of Stirner's The False Principle of our Education of Humanism and Realism (Colorado Springs, 1967), p. 3; and befreiüng blätter für anarchistische weltanschauung [sic] (Mannheim), February, 1969, pp. 12-16.

  34. Karl Löwith, p. 249. See also pp. 318-19, 359.

  35. Martin Buber, Between Men and Man (London, 1947), pp. 40-43, 82.

  36. Herbert Reed, The Tenth Muse (New York, 1958), pp. 81-82.

  37. Arvon, Aux sources de l'existentialisme, Max Stirner, p. 187.

  38. Rudolf Dutschke was born March 7, 1940, in Schönefeld, which is now in East Germany, the son of a postal clerk. As a youth he was involved in both Communistic and Christian youth groups, graduating to a belief in Christian Socialism. As a result of his belief's he refused to serve in the army and was not permitted to continue his education so he went to work in a state-owned factory, where he remained for three years until he defected to West Berlin in 1960. In West Berlin he completed high school, winning a scholarship to the Free University for his excellent academic record. He has often said that he has been influenced in his thinking by Marx, Engels, Rosa Luxemburg Mao Tse-Tung, Herbert Marcuse, the Bible and other sources.

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